Background of the Book of Romans

An Introduction To The Book Of Romans

https://bible.org/article/introduction-book-romans

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I. AUTHOR: The Apostle Paul

A. Externally1 and internally2 the evidence has been overwhelming in critical scholarship in favor of Pauline authorship of this letter.3 Once Pauline authorship is accepted for works like Galatians, and the Corinthian letters, than a work like Romans may also be ascribed Pauline since the topics are so similar, and there are no substantial difficulties4

B. Although some have denied Pauline authorship (e.g., Evanson, Bauer, Loman, Stek), it is no longer disputed5

C. Some consider Tertius to have composed Romans in accordance with Paul’s instruction (Romans 16:22), however it is more probable that Tertius was Paul’s secretary who either wrote the letter in long-hand from Paul’s dictation, or who first took Paul’s letter in shorthand and then wrote it out in long hand with Paul’s final approval6

II. DATE and DESTINATION: From Corinth in the winter of A.D. 56-57 to Rome

A. Date: Winter A.D. 56-57 from Corinth

1. A Relative Chronology: Romans was probably written during Paul’s third missionary journey from Corinth:7

a. The letter was written when Paul was about to set out for Jerusalem (15:25)

b. Paul also considers himself to have completed his missionary work among the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire (15:19,23)8, therefore, the journey is most probably the one recorded in Acts 20--21 which begins from Corinth (cf. Acts 19:21; 20:1-3).

c. Paul desired to go to Rome (1:10-13), but had been prevented (1:13; 15:22); now he hopes to go there on his way to Spain (15:23-28), but first he is going to Jerusalem with the offering for the poor from the Gentile churches (15:25-27)

d. Therefore, in view of Paul’s setting, Corinth seems to be the place from which Paul wrote (Acts 20:1-3)

Other indications that Paul wrote from Corinth are:

1) Paul commends Phoebe as a servant of the church in Cenchreae, Corinth’s eastern seaport (who probably carried the letter to the Romans) 16:1-2

2) Paul sends greetings from Gaius in whose house he was staying who may well have been the same Gaius mentioned in 1 Corinthians 1:14 as the one whom Paul baptized in Corinth 16:23

3) The greeting from Erastus the city treasurer may have been the Erastus who stayed in Corinth (cf. Acts 19:22; also 2 Tim. 4:20).

2. A More Absolute Chronology: Paul probably wrote Romans between A.D. 56-57

a. Paul seems to have stood before Gallio, the proconsul of Achaia, in the summer of A.D. 51 on his second missionary journey9

b. After staying many days in Corinth (Acts 18:18) Paul set out for Syria and remained some time in Ephesus (perhaps early fall AD 52; Acts 18:19-21)

c. Paul then returned to Caesarea, went down to Jerusalem, and then up to the church in Antioch where he spent some time (perhaps late fall of AD 52 through winter of 52/53; cf. Acts 18:22-23)

d. Paul began his third missionary journey from Antioch through the Galatian region (spring-summer of A.D. 53) and reached Ephesus in the fall of A.D. 53 where he remained for two to three years (AD 53-56; Acts 19:8,10; 20:31)

e. Therefore, Paul’s return to Corinth through Macedonia was probably in the spring or summer of AD 56 (Acts 20:2-3)

f. Paul probably arrived in Corinth in late fall of AD 56, and remained through early 57

Therefore, Romans, which was written from Corinth on the third missionary journey (see above), was probably written in the winter and early spring of AD 56-57.10

B. Destination: A Jewish/Gentile Church in Rome

1. There was an early church in Rome (possibly from before A.D. 49)

a. There was certainly a church already in Rome when Paul wrote the book of Romans (1:13; 15:23-24)

b. From a statement by Suetonius, there may be evidence that Christianity was in the capital of Rome by A.D. 4911

c. This church may well have been started through converts of Paul who lived in Rome12, rather than through any particular evangelistic effort13 since neither Paul (in Romans), nor Luke (in Acts),14 nor any other NT document mentions any.

2. The Composition of the church in Rome was probably mixed (Jewish/Gentile)

a. Rather than one large church, the Romans seem to have been made up of five household churches:

1) Five households are greeted (16:5,10,11,14,15)

2) Paul does not address the letter to the “Church” at (cf. 1 Cor. 1:2; 2 Cor. 1:1; 1 Thess. 1:1), but to “all that are at Rome”15 (1:7).

b. The Romans were made up of both Jews and Gentiles (with a probable emphasis upon Gentiles)

1) Paul writes to Gentiles

a) Paul was an apostle to the Gentiles (1:5; 11:3; Gal. 2:7-8)16

b) Paul speaks to Gentiles who receive mercy through Jewish unbelief (11:12-13)

c) Paul compares the Romans with other Gentiles, not just Gentiles (1:12-14)

d) Paul refers to the Jews as “my” brethren, and not “our” brethren (9:3)

e) Out of the twenty-four names in chapter 16, over one half are Latin and Greek

2) Paul writes to Jewish believers

a) Paul wrote with many references to the Old Testament (but see Galatians too)

b) Paul speaks of Abraham as “our” father in 2:1 (but see 1 Corinthians 10:1 where he does the same thing)

c) Chapters 9--11 are about the nation Israel (but they show that those who had privilege could loose it)

d) Paul describes a Jewish/Gentile problem in the church (“weak and strong”)

III. THE INTEGRITY OF THE BOOK OF ROMANS

A. The last two chapters of Romans are considered to be problematic to the integrity of the book

B. Chapter 16 has been considered to be, in whole or in part, a portion of an epistle sent to Ephesus; but, this is not a necessary conclusion17

1. Even though Paul had never been to Rome, he sent greetings to a large number of people there, and it would have been more reasonable if they were people from Ephesus where he was for three years. Also Paul does not mention these people from his later epistles sent from Rome

But Paul never concludes letters to churches which he personally knows with long addresses; rather, he only does this with the letter to Colossae (another church which he had never visited). This would have commended Paul well to the church since so many knew him

Paul probably does not mention these Romans in any of his other letters because there was no occasion, they were not his closest workers, and they had no connection with the churches to which he later wrote

2. It is unlikely that Priscilla and Aquila would have moved from Ephesus to Rome and back to Ephesus again (cf. 1 Cor. 16:19; 2 Tim. 4:19)

But extraordinary travel facilities connected to and from the capital of Rome; Aquila and Priscilla may have been well off, and even had a business establishment in both cities at once; they just appointed a Gentile manager while they left under the decree of Claudius18

3. The calling of Epaenetus the ‘first convert to Christ from Asia’ (Rom. 16:5) would have more meaning in Ephesus, than in Rome

But if Epaenetus did go to Rome, it would be natural for Paul to greet him, and to mention what he would naturally remember--that he was the first convert of Asia

4. If Paul was unknown to the church in Rome, than his recommendation of Phoebe would be of little value

But this is not a necessary conclusion since Paul was not an obscure person, and the writing of his letter speaks of a level of his authority with the Romans

5. The warnings of 16:17-19 appear to be more around the antinomianism of Ephesus than the Jewish-Gentile relationships of Romans

While there is no mention of these problems among the Romans, this does not mean that these words could have no relevance to them;--especially in view of Paul’s own struggles with them

6. Chapter 16 may have been a later appendix to the conclusion stated in chapter 15

But the ending of 15:33 is without precedent among Paul’s letters

7. Therefore, the evidence is inconclusive that chapter 16 is an appendage from an Ephesian letter. If there was an Ephesian letter, why did only its greetings survive? Also, there is no manuscript support that Romans ever circulated without the concluding chapter (even though the textual history is complicated). The Chester Beatty papyrus19 (P46) places the doxology (16:25-27) at the end of chapter 15, but still ends with chapter 16.

C. The Recensions of the Epistle: The enormity of textual evidence20 indicates that the letter did circulate in a shorter recension. Although a difficult issue, it was probably originally a longer letter which was shortened by Marcion21 and then copied by scribes who did not know of his editing. When the final chapters were found, they were added without editing the doxology at the end of chapter 15.

IV. REASONS WHY PAUL WROTE ROMANS:

A. Paul planned to do missionary work in Spain (15:24,28) and thus visit the Romans for prayer and financial support

B. Paul was interested in the Roman church, and intended to come for many years (1:13; 15:22-24,28-29; cf. Acts 19:21)

C. Paul wanted to preach the Gospel and impart a spiritual benefit to the Romans (1:11,15)

D. Since the book has so many doctrines, Paul wanted to instruct the Romans in their faith

E. Perhaps Phoebe was going to Rome so it was a good opportunity to write (16:1-2)

V. PURPOSE FOR THE BOOK OF ROMANS:

A. To create an interest in Paul’s Spanish mission; however, this does not account adequately for the theological nature of the mission

B. To present a full statement of Paul’s doctrinal position of the Gospel making this more of a treatise than a letter which arose from historical situations

C. Paul writes to address certain “intellectual” questions (especially concerning the place of a universal religion over against Jewish nationalism) which the saints in Rome are concerned about (which perhaps he learned about through Aquila and Priscilla)22

There may also have been practical difficulties which are reflected in Paul’s ethical injunctions in chapters 12--1523

D. To address tones of anti-semitism which might have arisen due the Claudius’ decree24

VI. THE THEME OF ROMANS
Paul desires to proclaim the gospel to the Romans because it is the power of God through which He reveals the righteous status of life25 for all people through faith 1:16-17

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1 The Apostolic Fathers held to Pauline authorship: 1 Clement 32.2 (cf. Rom. 9:4f); 35.5 (cf. Rom. 1:29-32); 50.6f (cf. Rom. 4:7-9); Ignatius, Eph 19:3 (cf. Rom. 6:4); Magn. 6:2 (cf. Rom. 6:17); 9.1 (cf. Rom. 6:6); Trall. 9:2 (cf. Rom. 8:11); Smyrn. 1.1 (cf. Rom. 1:3f); Polycarp 3.3 (cf. Rom. 13:8-10); 4:1 (cf. Rom. 6:13 and 12:12); 6.2 (cf. Rom. 14:19 and 12); 10.1 (cf. Rom 12:10)

Every early list of NT books includes Romans among Paul’s letters.

2 Internally, the linguistic, stylistic, literary, historical, and theological evidence all support Pauline authorship.

3 C. E. B. Cranfield, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on The Epistle to the Romans, 1:1-2.

4 See Harrison who writes, “From the postapostolic church to the present, with almost no exception, the Epistle has been credited to Paul.  If the claim of the apostle to have written the Galatian and Corinthian letters is accepted, there is no reasonable basis for denying that he wrote Romans, since it echoes much of what is in the earlier writings, yet not slavishly” (Romans, EBC, pp. 3-4).

5 Cranfield, Romans, pp. 1-2.

6 Cranfield offers a lengthy discussion in Romans 1:2-4.

7 Much of this is dependent upon the integrity of chapters 15 and 16 to the letter (see below).  Apart from this integrity, it is almost impossible to reconstruct the occasion for the epistle (see Guthrie, NTI, p. 396 n. 1).

8 From Jerusalem to Illyricum (the eastern shore of the Adriatic or modern Yugoslavia).

9 This absolute date is derived from the inscription found at Delphi which shows that Gallio was proconsul of Achaia in A.D. 52-[54] which means that he was probably proconsul of Achaia from mid-51 to mid-52, and Paul probably stood before him early in Gallio’s governorship since the Jews would be attempting to win a new governor to their side (see Cranfield, Romans, 1:12-13).

10 See also Cranfield’s computations from the replacement of Felix, as governor of Judea, backwards (Romans, 1:14-16).

11 Suetonius records that Claudius banished Jews from Rome in AD 49 Because there had been rioting at the instigation of one called Chrestus (“Claudius ‘Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantes Roma expulit” [Claudius 25])  See Guthrie, NTI, p. 393; Cranfield, p. 16.

12 Guthrie suggests that the message spread from the Pentecost event in Acts where Jews and proselytes from Rome were present (cf. Acts 2:10; Guthrie, NTI, p. 394), but this is unlikely since there was no instruction for these believers.  Nevertheless, their lack of clear instruction could explain why Paul writes such a lengthy treatise on the gospel.

It may be more probable that Paul “founded” the church through his converts because: (1) Paul mentions so many names, (2) Paul would not build upon another’s foundation, and (3) there is no evidence that Peter founded the church.

13 Some have identified the founding of the church with Peter, however, Paul never mentions Peter in Romans even though he mentions twenty-four other people.  Paul also never mentions Peter in his prison epistles, or 2 Timothy which were written from Rome.

Also when Priscilla and Aquila came from Rome to Corinth, it was because of an edict from Claudius in AD 49-50 (cf. Acts 18:2-3), which would place their arrival before Peter moved from Jerusalem (e.g., he was in Jerusalem for the Jerusalem council in fall of AD 49; see also Guthrie, NTI, p. 394).

Tradition may have claimed both Peter and Paul as their apostles because they were both martyred in Rome (Cranfield, Romans, 1:17).

14 On the contrary, Luke implies that the gospel has already reached Rome before Paul arrives since believers come to meet Paul as he arrives (Acts 28:14-15).

15 The Greek reads: πᾶσιν τοῖς οὖσιν ἐν  ῾Ρώμη.

16 But Acts also emphasizes that he was to go to all peoples--both Jews and Gentiles (Acts 9:15).

17 See Guthrie, NTI, pp. 400-404 for a more extensive discussion.

18 A possible reconstruction of their travels may be: (1) Acts 18:1-3--they left Rome in AD 49 because of Claudius’ edict, (2) They came to Corinth and met Paul on his second missionary journey; he was also a tent maker, (3) Paul arrived in Corinth in AD 51, (4) Paul left Corinth for Ephesus in AD 52, and went back to Jerusalem while Aquila and Priscilla remained in Ephesus, (5) Acts 18:26--Priscilla and Aquila correct Apollos in the knowledge of the gospel, (6) in spring of 56 they are still in Ephesus when Paul returns on his third missionary journey (1 Cor. 16:19), (7) in the winter of 56-57 they are in Rome when Paul writes to the Romans from Corinth, and (8) in the autumn of 67 they are in Ephesus again when Paul writes (2 Tim. 4:19).

19 See its description by Bruce M. Metzger, The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration (Second Edition.  New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp. 37-38.

20 See Guthrie’s discussion (NTI, pp. 405-406).

21 Guthrie, NTI, pp. 409-413.

22 As Guthrie says, “For this reason Paul deals with the fundamental Christian principle of ‘righteousness’ as contrasted with the Jewish approach, and then discusses the problem of Israel’s failure and her relationship to the universal Christian Church” (NTI, p. 399).

Paul desires to promote unity in the body.  Therefore he more fully defends his message against Judaizers in Rome.  He himself is in a context of personal Jewish opposition (Acts 20:3).  Paul does acknowledge the priority of the Jews (1:16; 2:9-10) as well as the advantage of being a Jew (3:1-2; 9:4-5), but he emphasizes that God is God of the Jews and the Gentiles (3:29-30), that God has temporarily halted His program for rebellious Israel (9--11), and that a believing remnant will continue (11:5) until the full number of Gentiles comes in (11:25).  Therefore, God is seen as being good in his universal plan of salvation (3:26).

23 But this is also a natural pattern for Paul to address the theoretical (1--11) before the practical (12--15).

24 The decree from Claudius was against Jews living in Rome (Acts 18:2).  Paul often addresses benefits of being a Jew throughout his letter (1:16; 2:9-10; 3:1-2; 9--11).  Perhaps in doing this he was combating a natural movement among the Roman Gentiles.

25 This is interpreting the genative (θεοῦ) as objective (righteousness as God’s gift) rather than subjective (e.g., righteousness as God’s activity).  This is a very difficult decision; see Cranfield for some in-depth discussion concerning these two views (Romans, 1:96-99).  Righteousness is the moral character of God reflected in the gospel.  All righteousness is a revelation of who God is.  But Paul is emphasizing the righteous status which is given to men by God throughout the letter (cf. Rom. 5:17; 10:3; Phil. 3:9; 2 Cor. 5:21).

Related Topics: Introductions, Arguments, Outlines

Map of third journey of Paul

http://www.biblestudy.org/maps/apostle-paul-third-missionary-journey-map.html

Paul's missionary Journey
The first journey: Acts 13:1 to 15:35
The second journey: Acts 15:36 to 18:22
The third journey: Acts 18:23 to 21:17
The voyage to Rome: Acts chapters 27 and 28

First Journey (46-48 A.D.) was the shortest, in time and distance, of the first three, began by sailing to Cyprus
http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/paulfirs.htm

Second Journey (49 -52AD)
"Some time later Paul said to Barnabas, "Let us go back and visit the brothers in all the towns where we preached The Word of The Lord and see how they are doing." (Acts 15:36)

The second journey began on a rather unfortunate circumstance: "Barnabas wanted to take John, also called Mark, with them, but Paul did not think it wise to take him, because he had deserted them in Pamphylia and had not continued with them in the word. They had such a sharp disagreement that they parted company. Barnabas took Mark and sailed for Cyprus, but Paul chose Silas and left." (Acts 15:37-40)

He set out overland through Syria and Cilicia, to revisit the churches he had earlier established in Asia, including those at Derbe, and then at Lystra where Timothy joined him (Acts 16:1-5). From there they continued northward through Phrygia and Galatia (Acts 16:6). Paul remained in Galatia for some time due to an unspecified illness (Galatians 4:13-14).
http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/paulsec.htm

Third Journey

http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/paulthir.htm

Book of Romans

http://davidpawson.org/resources/resource/1307

http://davidpawson.org/books/a-commentary-on-romans/

Dates relating to bible story

The Hebrew Exodus was in 1495 B.C.E./B.C.

http://www.danielpipes.org/comments/195173

Reader comment on item: American Intifada
in response to reader comment: So when was the Israelite exodus from Egypt?

Submitted by Lujack Skylark (United States), Apr 18, 2012 at 19:45

The Hebrew Exodus was in 1495 B.C.E./B.C. Solomon's real reign was 1019-979 B.C. (1Kings 11:42) & (1 Kings 6:1) 1015 B.C. + 480 years = 1495 B.C. the Exodus 480 yrs. from Solomon's 4th year.
Rehoboam reign 979-962 B.C. (1 Kings 14:21) Abijam 962-959 B.C. (1 Kings 15:2) Asa 959-918 B.C. (1 Kings 15:10) Jehoshaphat 918-893 B.C. (1 Kings 22:42) Jehoram 893-885 B.C (2 Kings 8:17) Ahaziah 885-884 B.C. (2 Kings 8:26) Athaliah 884-878 B.C. (2 Kings 11:1-3) Jehoash 878-838 B.C. (2 KIngs 12:1) Amaziah 838-809 B.C. (2 Kings 14:2) Uzziah 809-757 B.C. (2 Kings 15:2)
Jotham 757-741 B.C. (2 Kings 15:33) Ahaz 741-725 B.C. (2 Kings 16:2) Hezekiah 725-696 B.C. (2 Kings 18:2) Manasseh 696-641 B.C. (2 Kings 21:1) Amon 641-639 B.C. (2 KIngs 21:19) Josiah 639-608 B.C. (2 Kings 22:1) Jehoahaz 608 B.C. (2 Kings 23:31) Jehoiakim 608-597 B.C. (2 Kings 23:36) Jehoiachin 597 B.C. (2 Kings 24:8) & Zedekiah 597-586 B.C. (2 Kings 24:18) The vast majority of historians state Solomon's temple was destroyed in 586 B.C.
Egyptian chronology Thutmose III does not die in 1434 B.C. The Exodus king dies in 1495 B.C. some 521 years before Rehoboam's 5th year in 974 B.C. (1 Kings 14:25) Shishak dies in Rehoboam's 5th year 974 B.C. a few months after attacking Jerusalem.
Reign of Egyptian kings given in solo years. Example Amenhotep II is listed as 26 years. He reigns 24 years solo.
Amenhotep II 1495-1471 B.C. Thutmose IV 1471-1462 B.C. Amenhotep III 1462-1424 B.C. Akenaton 1424-1407 B.C. Semenkare 1407-1406 B.C. Tut 1406-1396 B.C. Ay 1396-1392 B.C. Horemheb 1392-1361 B.C. Ramses I 1361-1360 B.C. Seti I 1360-1347 B.C. Ramses II 1347-1280 B.C. Merneptah I 1280-1268 B.C. Amenmesses 1268-1263 B.C. Seti II 1263-1258 B.C. Merneptah II 1258-1251 B.C. Tausert 1251-1249 B.C. Irsu 1249-1247 B.C. Setnakht 1247-1245 B.C. Ramses III 1245-1213 B.C.
Ramses IV 1213-1207 B.C. Ramses V 1207-1203 B.C. Ramses VI 1203-1193 B.C. Ramses VII 1193-1192 B.C. Ramses VIII 1192-1185 B.C. Ramses IX 1185-1166 B.C. Ramses X 1166-1157 B.C. Ramses XI 1157-1130 B.C. Smendes 1130-1103 B.C. Neferkhres 1103-1099 B.C. Psusennes I 1099-1049 B.C. Amenmope 1049-1040 B.C. Osokhor 1040-1034 B.C. Siamon 1034-1014 B.C. Psusennes II 1014-995 B.C. & Shishak 995-974 B.C.
The Egyptian chronology from the Exodus to Rehoboam's 5th year (1 Kings 14:25) is a perfect match! The pharoah before Amenhotep II was Thutmose III the Exodus pharaoh.
How the Book of Judges fits into 1 Kings 6:1 480 years from Exodus to Solomon's 4th year.
If we say in the 8th year of Othniel reign as judge Cushan-Rishathaim is defeated and the 18th year Ehud was judge Moab was defeated we are on our way to match Judges with 1 KIngs 6:1)
1495 B.C. was the Exodus. 1455 B.C. Joshua invades Canaan. 1418-1378 B.C. Othniel reigns as judge. Othniel defeats Cushan-Rishathaim in his eighth year of reign in 1410 B.C. 1378-1298 B.C. Ehud reigns as judge. Ehud's 18th year he slays Moabite king Eglon. 1298-1258 B.C. Deborah & Barak reign as judges over Israel. Deborah and Barak's 20th year 1278 B.C. they defeat the Canaanite Jabin. 1258-1218 B.C. Gideon reigns as judge. Gideon's 7th year 1251 B.C. Gideon defeats the children of the East-the Syrians. 1251-1249 B.C. Egyptian queen Tausert has an affair with her Syrian butler named Bay.
1218-1215 B.C. Abimelech slays his 70 half brothers declaring himself an Israeli king. 1245-1213 B.C. Ramses III at the end of his reign is nearly slain by members in his harem. Power plays in Israel and Egypt.. 1215-1192 B.C. judge Tola reigns. 1192-1170 B.C. Judge Jair reigns. 1170-1152 B.C. Ammon oppresses Israel. Who are the Israel judges during this oppression? 1170-1163 B.C. Judge Ibson 1163-1153 B.C. Elon reigned as judge. 1153-1147 B.C. Jephthah reigned as judge defeating Ammon in 1152 B.C. some 300 years while Israel 1452-1152 B.C. lived in Heshbon and her towns, Aroer and her towns and along the coasts of Arnon. Judges 11:26
1147-1139 B.C. Abdon reigns as judge. 1139-1099 B.C. Philistine oppression. Who reigns as judge? 1139-1119 B.C. Samson reigns as judge. 1119-1099 B.C. The Ark of the Covenant is taken to Kirjath-jearim where it rested for 20 years. (1 Samuel 7:2)
1099-1059 B.C. Saul reigns as king of Israel 1059-1019 B.C. David reigns as king of Israel 1019-979 B.C. Solomon reigns as king of Israel. Solomon's 4th year is 1015 B.C. some 480 years after the Exodus.
We have the updated chronology from the Exodus to Solomon's temple destruction with no missing links. We also have the pharoah of the Exodus to Shishak with no missing links! Bible chronology is a perfect match with Egyptian history!

The Family of Abraham

The Family of Abraham
by Felix Just, S.J., Ph.D. http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/History-Abraham.htm

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Various biblical passages describe the complex inter-relationships in the family of Abraham (originally named Abram). Contrary to modern Western customs, it was acceptable in ancient times to marry close family relatives, including cousins and nieces. It was evidently also common for men to have more than one wife, and even to have children with women who were not their wives (slaves or concubines). For example, Abraham's first son was the child of his wife's slave-girl; and one biblical tradition even says that his wife, Sarah, was actually his half-sister. Similarly, the twelve sons of Jacob have four different mothers: the two wives of Jacob (who are his first cousins) and two other women (slave-girls of his wives).
A prominent feature of the biblical texts is also the explanation of tribal origins through various genealogies. Thus, the Israelites (the twelve tribes of Israel) see themselves as the descendants of the twelve sons of Jacob, son of Isaac, son of Abraham. In contrast, groups like the Ishmaelites and Edomites (to the south and southeast of the Israelites) are said to be descendants of Abraham's other children and grandchildren, while the neighboring Moabites and Ammonites (west of Israel) are described as descendants of Lot, Abraham's nephew.
Another important aspect of the biblical stories is what could be called family rivalries and disputes, esp. when younger sons usurp the inheritance rights of their older brothers. Thus, Abraham's inheritance is passed on to Isaac (not the first-born Ishmael), and then to Jacob (not his elder brother Esau).
Combining all the above points helps to explain both the close relationships and the bitter rivalries between the ancient Israelites and the neighboring Semitic peoples. The Israelites (and modern Jews!) believe that the promises God made to Abraham (esp. that his descendants shall possess the Promised Land forever) were legitimately handed on to them through Isaac and Jacob (as described in the Bible), while the descendants of the other tribes (and modern Arabs!) believe that the land should belong to them, since they are descendants of the elder sons (and thus the rightful heirs) of Abraham.
The following charts can help us visualize some of these complex relationships:

Click here for a PDF version of this chart

NOTES: (unless otherwise noted, all biblical references are from the Book of Genesis)

• Terah: from Ur of the Chaldeans; has three sons; wife not named (11:26-32; cf. Luke 3:34).
• Haran: dies in Ur before his father dies; wife not named; son Lot, daughters Milcah & Iscah (11:27-28).
• Nahor: marries Milcah, daughter of his brother Haran (11:29); have eight sons, incl. Bethuel (22:20-24).
• Abram: main character of Gen 12–25; recipient of God's promises; name changed to ABRAHAM (17:5); sons Ishmael (by Hagar) and Isaac (by Sarah); after Sarah's death, takes another wife,Keturah, who has six sons (25:1-4), including Midian, ancestor of the Midianites (37:28-36).
• Lot: son of Haran, thus nephew of Abram, who takes care of him (11:27–14:16; 18:17–19:29); wife and two daughters never named; widowed daughters sleep with their father and bear sons, who become ancestors of the Moabites and Ammonites (19:30-38).
   
• Sarai: Abram's wife, thus Terah's daughter-in-law (11:29-31); Abram also calls her his "sister," which seems deceptive in one story (12:10-20); but in another story Abram insists she really is his half-sister (his father's daughter by another wife; 20:1-18); originally childless, but in old age has a son, Isaac (16:1–21:7); name changed to SARAH (17:15); dies and is buried in Hebron (23:1-20).
• Hagar: Sarah's Egyptian slave-girl; mother of Abram's first son, Ishmael; much conflict with Sarah after his birth; even more after the birth of Sarah's son, Isaac (16:1–21:21).
• Ishmael: first-born son of Abraham, by Hagar (16:1–17:27); wife or wives never named, but has 12 sons (25:12-16), the ancestors of 12 tribes of Ishmaelites (37:25-28). - see below
• Isaac: second son of Abraham, by wife Sarah, despite her old age (17:15-21; 21:1–35:29); marries Rebekah, who has twin sons, Esau & Jacob.
   
• Betheul: youngest son of Nahor & Milcah; wife unnamed; father of Rebekah (22:23) and Laban (24:29).
• Rebekah: daughter of Bethuel (22:23); becomes wife of Isaac (24:15–25:20); favors their younger son.
• Laban: son of Bethuel, brother of Rebekah; has extensive interactions with Jacob (24:29–31:55).
• Esau: elder twin son of Isaac & Rebekah (25:25); names of wives differ in two traditions (26:34 & 28:9 vs. 36:2-3); one is a daughter of Ishmael; his sons are ancestors of the Edomites (36:1-43).
• Jacob: younger twin son of Isaac & Rebekah (25:26); conflicts with Esau (25:27–27:46); marries Leah and Rachel, daughters of his uncle Laban (27:43–29:30); name changed to ISRAEL (32:28); has12 sons (with two wives + two slave-girls), ancestors of the Israelites or "12 Tribes of Israel" (29:31–49:33). - see below
   
• Curiosity about the ages of the Patriarchs:
  • Abraham lived 175 years (Gen 25:7), which equals 7 x 5²
  • Isaac lived 180 years (Gen 35:28), which equals 5 x 6²
  • Jacob lived 147 years (Gen 47:28), which equals 3 x 7²

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The Bible says very little else about the "Twelve Tribes of Ismaelites" aside from naming the twelve sons of Ishmael in Gen 25:12-16 and again in 1 Chron 1:29-31.

• Gen 25:12-16 – "These are the descendants of Ishmael, Abraham's son, whom Hagar the Egyptian, Sarah's slave-girl, bore to Abraham./ These are the names of the sons of Ishmael, named in the order of their birth: Nebaioth, the firstborn of Ishmael; and Kedar, Adbeel, Mibsam, / Mishma, Dumah, Massa, / Hadad, Tema, Jetur, Naphish, and Kedemah. / These are the sons of Ishmael and these are their names, by their villages and by their encampments, twelve princes according to their tribes."
• 1 Chron 1:29-31 – "These are their genealogies: the firstborn of Ishmael, Nebaioth; and Kedar, Adbeel, Mibsam, / Mishma, Dumah, Massa, Hadad, Tema, / Jetur, Naphish, and Kedemah. These are the sons of Ishmael."
  • Adbeel, Massa, Kedemah - not mentioned anywhere else in the Bible
  • Mibsam & Mishma - not mentioned elsewhere, but different people with the same name appear in 1 Chron 4:25-26
  • Hadad - not mentioned elsewhere, but several other biblical characters are named Hadad, Ben-Hadad, Hadadezer, etc.
• Other biblical references to some of the sons of Ishmael (aside from Gen 25:12-16 and 1 Chr 1:29-31)
  • Nebaioth - also in Gen 28:9; 36:3; Isa 60:7
  • Kedar - also in Ps 120:5; Prov 21:4; Songs 1; Isa 21:16; 21:17; 42:11; 60:7; Jer 2:10; 49:28; Ezek 27:21
  • Dumah - also in Josh 15:52; Isa 21:11
  • Tema - also in Job 6:19; Isa 21:14; Jer 25:23
  • Jetur & Naphish - also in 1 Chron 5:19

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The Hebrew Bible describes the "Twelve Tribes of Israel" as descendants of the twelve sons of Jacob (also named Israel), with four different mothers. The births of the twelve sons (and the significance of their names) are described in chronological order in the book of Genesis (29:31–30:24 & 35:16-20). The Bible contains several different listings of the twelve tribes. Each tribe has its own characteristics and eventually obtains its own territory:

• Reuben is the first-born son, and thus sometimes exercises a leadership role among his brothers; but he later loses favor and prominence.
• The tribe of Joseph (through his sons Manasseh and Ephraim) becomes the largest and most prominent by the time the Israelites enter the Promised Land and divide it among themselves.
• The tribe of Levi is uniquely important, not only because of Moses and Aaron, but since they become the priestly tribe (all the sons of Levi are priests, while members of any other tribe cannot be priests). The Levites do not receive a separate territory of their own, but rather live scattered among all the other tribes, where they serve as priests for the whole people.
• Although the first king of Israel (Saul) is from the tribe of Benjamin, the tribe of Judah becomes known as the royal tribe, due to the promise God makes to King David that his descendants will rule over Israel forever (2 Sam 7).

Click here for a PDF version of this chart (on page 2)

Notes:

• Jacob's twelve sons are first mentioned in the order of their births, in Genesis 29:31–30:24 & 35:16-20.
  • Leah (elder wife): 1) Reuben, 2) Simeon, 3) Levi, 4) Judah; later also 9) Issachar, 10) Zebulun
  • Bilhah (Rachel's slave): 5) Dan, 6) Naphtali
  • Zilpah (Leah's slave): 7) Gad, 8) Asher
  • Rachel (younger wife): 11) Joseph, 12) Benjamin
• Manasseh & Ephraim – sons of Joseph, whose descendants figure prominently in the later history of Israel
• Moses and Aaron – leaders of the Israelites at the time of their migration out of Egypt and wandering in the Sinai desert
• Kings David & Solomon – the two greatest rulers of the united Kingdom of Israel, from about 1100 to 930 BCE
• Tribe of Levi – becomes known as the “priestly tribe,” since all cultic & temple officials had to belong to this tribe
• Tribe of Judah – becomes known as the “royal tribe,” since all later Kings of Judah were descendants of King David

See also my Overview of Israelite and Jewish History

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Connection of Judges to Historical figure: Aramean King Cushan Rishathaim of Mesopotamia

http://www.aramnahrin.org/English/Aramnaharaim.htm

Aram-Nahrin........Aram-Naharaim............Mesopotamia

Aramaic:	Aram-Nahrin (or: Aramnahrin)Beth Aramaye or Beth- Oromoye (= Home/house of Arameans)
Hebrew:	Aram-Naharaim
Greek:	Mesopotamia

In the ancient times it was called,, Aramnahrin" (or: Aram-Nahrin) in Aramaic. In Hebrew it was called,, Aram-Naharaim" which we encounter in the old testament. When the old testament was translated into Greek, the term Aram-Naharaim was translated by Mesopotamia; which many get familiarized with during their education.

Because of overwhelming presence of Arameans in this part of the world, in the era of early Christianity, it was called Beth-Aramaya, meaning (in Aramaic) the house of the Arameans. The northern part of Aram-Naharaim was called Paddan-Aram, meaning the land of Aram where Biblical figures like Abraham and Jacob have lived and walked, which is roughly speaking situated in southeastern Turkey. A part of Paddan-Aram is today called Tur Abdin in the Aramaic (Syriac) language, which means “the mountains of the servants of the Lord”, because of the overwhelming presence of monasteries and churches.

West- Arameans, East- Arameans

The Aramean nation was at beginning of early Christianity geographically divided into East- Arameans and West- Arameans.

The river the Euphrates in general served as the border. Thus those living east of Euphrates, roughly speaking Iran, were called East- Arameans. And those living at the West of Euphrates were called West- Arameans. The East- Arameans, also called Nestorians, in general were volatile and as has been explained numerous groups emanated from them.

More about this: http://www.aramnahrin.org/English/iraqichristians.htm

Beth- Aramaye or Beth- Ormoye

Beth- Aramye: Eastern (Aramaic) Syriac dialect

Beth- Oromoye: Western (Aramaic) Syriac dialect.

This term is used by quite number of famouse scholars of both, the West- Syrian as well as the east- Syrian Church

East- Syrian Church: Simon Bar Sabbae (2^nd Catholicos of Seleucia- Ktiphon); Catholicos- Patriarch Elias (I) of Tirhan (= Terehan) (1028-1049); Mor Touma Audo, born in Alqosh [Iraq] in 1855 and killed in the year of 1917; Ya‘qob Avgin (= Eugene) Manna (1867-1928) born in Bet Qopa [Iraq];

West- Syrian Church: Saint James of Sarug (Sürüç, Turkey, †512); Simeon of Beth Arsham; The Anonymous of Zuqnin, Syrian-Orthodox (West-Aramean) Patriarch St. Michael the Great of Militene;

http://www.aramnahrin.org/English/Testimonies_Historians.htm

Old Testament:

1 Chronicle 19:6 “ King Hanun and the Ammonites realized that they had made David their enemy, so they paid nearly forty tons of silver to hire chariots and charioteers from Upper Mesopotamia (= Aram-Naharaim) and from the Aramean states of Maacah and Zobah.

Deuteronomy 23:4 “ They refused to provide you with food and water when you were on your way out of Egypt, and they hired Balaam son of Beor, from the city of Pethor in Mesopotamia (= Aram-Naharaim), to curse you. .

Genesis 24:10,,  The servant, who was in charge of Abraham's property, took ten of his master's camels and went to the city where Nahor had lived in northern Mesopotamia (= Aram-Naharaim).

Acts 2:9,,  We are from Parthia, Media, and Elam; from Mesopotamia (=Aram-Naharaim), Judea, and Cappadocia; from Pontus and Asia, ,

Psalm 60:2,, For the choir director; according to shushan eduth; a miktam by David; for teaching. When David fought Mesopotamia (= Aram Naharaim) and Aram Zobah, and when Joab came back and killed 12,000 men from Edom in the Dead Sea region. O God, you have rejected us. You have broken down our defenses. You have been angry. Restore us

Judges 3:8,,  So the LORD became angry with Israel and let King Cushan Rishathaim of Mesopotamia (= Aram-naharaim) conquer them. They were subject to him for eight years. .

http://www.aramnahrin.org/English/Aramnaharaim.htm